Principles of Managers and Management

Principles of Managers and Management We must understand who is manager before further our study into the aspects of management. Managers have long been responsible for planning, organizing, leading and controlling in such a way as to ensure that the organizations objectives are achieved efficiently. A major change is occurring in many organizations, however Management is increasingly becoming a responsibility of every individual in the organization, not just those who are formally designated as managers. In many organization, all members are managing themselves more than was generally in the past. They are performing some of the functions of management, such as planning, not simply the task assigned to them as part of the organizing process. 1.1.2 Who are managers? Manager can be defined as, A manager is an individual who is directly responsible for ensuring that tasks are performed by people or employees in an organisation. or A manager is a person tasked with overseeing one or more employees or departments to ensure these employees or departments carry out assigned duties as required Practically, managemer is divided into three levels, 1) Senior / Top managemer 2) Middle manager and 3) First level / Lower manager. Top managers, who are responsible for making ornagization decision and establishing the plan and goals that affect the entire organisations. These individuals typically have titles such as Executive Vice President, Vice President, President, Chief Operation Officer (COO) or Chief Executive Officer (CEO). Senior or Top manager commonly consists of a board of directors or shareholders who own the company and are responsible for making key decisions that affect the company. Middle managers include all levels of management between the first level manager and top level of the organisation. These managers manage the work of first-line managers and may have titles such as regional managers, project leader, plant managers or division managers. First-line managers, the lowest level of management, manage the work of nonmanagerial employees who typically are involved with producing the organizations products or servicing the organizations customer. There are three key elements to get to know about the manager. The fuctions performed by managers in the management environment, roles and the skills. This three key elements will be discussed later. 1.1.3 What is management? Self check : In your opinion, what is the definition of management? Management can be defined as follows: Management is defined as the process of overseeing and coordinating resources efficiently and effectively in line with the goals of the organisation. The attainment of organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing, leading and controlling organizational resources In the simplest of terms, management is all about getting things done. However, it is the way and the process of how one achieves ones target or goals and it is in this respect that management is considered an art and a science as well. Peter Drucker (1993) defined management as Supplying knowledge to find out how existing knowledge can best be applied to produce results is, in effect, what we mean by management. But knowledge is now also being applied systematically and purposefully to determine what new knowledge is needed, whether it is feasible, and what has to be done to make knowledge effective. It is being applied, in other words, to systematic innovation. (Drucker, 1993) From all the above definitions, it is clear that management is a creative as well as a systematic flow of knowledge that can be applied to produce results by using human as well as other resources in an effective way. Management has not been limited to managing human resource; management today has been segregated into various branches like financial management, strategic management, operations management, time management, crisis management, marketing management etc. Each of these is a separate branch that is being handled by managers who specialize in these fields. Today the importance of management from an organizations point of view has increased multifold. It is only through effective management that companies are developing and executing their businesss policies and strategies to maximize their profits and provide with the best of products and services. Management today combines creative, business, organizational, analytical and other skills to produce effective goal-oriented results! Some of the key functions in management includes learning to delegate, planning and organizing, communicating clearly, controlling situations, motivating employees, adapting to change, constantly innovating and thinking of new ideas, building a good team and delivering results which are not just figure -bound but results that also focus on overall growth and development. Management focuses on the entire organization from both a short and a long-term perspective. Management is the managerial process of forming a strategic vision, setting objectives, crafting a strategy and then implementing and executing the strategy. Management goes beyond the organizations internal operations to include the industry and the general environment. The key emphasis is on issues related to environmental scanning and industry analysis, appraisal of current and future competitors, assessment of core competencies, strategic control and the effective allocation of organizational resources. Nevertheless, based on definition number 2, effectiveness is the attainment of goals that enables the realisation of the objectives of an organisation or, briefly, as doing the right thing whereas efficiency is performing a job using minimum effort, cost and wastage or simply put as doing things right. The end result of an efficient and effective management is the success of an organisation. A person can be described as efficient but not effective or effective but not efficient in managing a specific task. Both elements are not interdependent. Lets say a factory worker finds a shortcut to doing a task with lower cost but by doing so, he deviates from the ethical objectives of the organisation. For example, he disposes of production waste by dumping it into the river. But one of the organisations ethical objectives is to preserve local harmony. So, the factory worker, through his action, deviated from the objective although he was efficient. In short, he was efficient but not effective. In contrast, an employee is considered effective but not efficient if he uses an old method to resolve a management issue even if it could have been resolved efficiently without deviating from the objectives of the organisation. For example, in delivering information, the employee sends a letter via post instead of e-mail. Although it does not affect or clash with the organisations objectives, the employee has wasted a part of the resources allocated to him. Both efficiency and effectiveness cannot be excluded from the definition of management as these are essential elements in defining management. 1.1.4 What is organizations? When two or more people get together and agree to coordinate their activities in order to achieve their common goals, an organization has been born. There is really no doubt about the present meaning of organization. Its purpose is to create an arrangement of positions and responsibilities through and by means of which an enterprise can carry out its work. An academic textbook definition of organization can be formulated as follows: a. the responsibilities by means of which the activities of the enterprise are dispersed among the (managerial, supervisory, and specialist) personnel employed in its service; and b. the formal interrelations established among the personnel by virtue of such responsibilities. It must be emphasized that an organization should not be seen as rigid as the term framework implies. In reality, almost all organization structures must be occasionally reviewed due to various changes in the external environment of the organization in question. Moreover, internal changes also occur oftentimes due to the development of various informal relationships. However, in order to develop a so-called science of organizations a conceptual framework of theory and principle must first be developed. It is true to state that principles of management have existed for a long time. These principles were not recorded as scientific truths, but simply applied as practical means to accompany the process of modernization. As societies became more complex, an acceptable framework to encompass the unscientific principles of management was needed. Since the nineteenth century, many writers and researchers have contributed a great deal to existing principles and accepted practices. It is in the formulation of principles that the science of management can be developed. A management principle distils and organizes knowledge that has been built up through experience and analysis. It is highly unlikely that management will ever become an exact science with many laws governing it because personal judgment will always be needed to supplement available knowledge. Unlike principles in the natural sciences, management principles are not fundamental truths, they are only conditional statements which largely depends on many other variables. However, it is still necessary to continue the process of understanding and applying accepted principles to improve the quality of day-to-day management practice. For this reason management will always be an art. 1.2 Who are managers and what they do? There are three key elements to get to know about the manager. Management Fuctions Management Roles Management Skills. 1.2.1 Management Functions Today in most management book, basic management functions The manager is involved in various basic activities. These activities are usually grouped in a concept categorised as management functions. These functions are illustrated as follows. Management functions Planning, Organising, Leading Controlling Referring to the table below, all four management functions elorated. Table 1.1: Management Functions Management Functions Descriptions Planning Defining objectives to be achieved for a given period and what needs to be done to achieve the objectives. All management levels in an organisation need to be involved in planning. Managers need to develop objectives in line with the overall strategies of the organisation. Organising Determining what tasks are to be done; who will implement and co-ordinate them; how the tasks are to be grouped; who reports to whom; and where decisions are to be made. The manager needs to logically and effectively organise the information, resources and workflow of the organisation so that he is able to react positively towards changes in the business environment. Leading This involves motivating subordinates; selecting the most effective communication channels; resolving conflicts; and directing as well as guiding the actions of others with the intention of achieving all objectives. The effective leader of today has to be visionary in foreseeing the future, sharing the vision and encouraging employees in realising the vision. Controlling The measuring of performance in all pre-determined objectives, determining reasons for deviation and taking appropriate actions, where necessary. Controlling is an important function in the management process as it provides ways to ensure that the organisation moves towards achieving its objectives. 1.2.2 MANAGEMENT ROLES Manager can identified by the role they play in the organisations. An expert in management, Prof Henry Mintzberg, did a research by observing what managers did during their work hours. His research conclude that managers not only have 4 elements as discussed in Management Functions, but they have to play another roles as detailed below (Lewis, P.S. et al; 2001). Role as a Figurehead A manager must carry out ceremonial duties. For example, the vice-chancellor of a university must be involved in the opening ceremony of programmes conducted at the university. The head of a department is responsible for entertaining his clients. Role as a Leader A manager indirectly functions as a leader. Each manager must function as a leader in motivating and encouraging his subordinates. The manager steers members of his unit to continuously work effectively to achieve the goals of the unit and organisation besides resolving problems and issues. Role as a Liaison Officer A manager conveys relevant information gathered to individuals outside his unit or to other relevant parties outside his organisation. The manager will allocate time for interacting with people outside his organisation. Thus, a manager acts as a channel for communications between his department and those within as well as those outside his organisation. For example, a human resource manager may liaise with the finance manager to check on funds allocated for the recruitment of new employees by the organisation before embarking on a recruitment drive. Role as a Spokesperson The manager of an organisation usually acts as its spokesperson. For example, a supervisor will usually ensure that the operations manager is furnished with the latest information on the running of his production plant. Similarly, the general manager of a factory will lobby local authorities for a new tender. Role as a Negotiator No organisation is without problems. A manager is compelled to find a solution for each of its problems regardless of complexities. The manager needs to spend a lot of time in discussions as he plays the role of a negotiator. For example, a manager will negotiate with the trade union chief to reach an amicable agreement on salaries. Role as an Initiator Two management experts, Sumantra Ghoshal and Christopher Bartlett (Dessler, G; 2001), highlighted the additional role of a manager as an initiator of corporate actions and transformations. Moreover, an excellent manager is one who cultivates three processes that steer his employees towards achieving initiatives for change. These processes are as follows: Entrepreneurship Process The manager will try to improve his units performance and when he gets a good idea, he will launch a programme to realise the idea. Researches carried out in Japan, the United States and Europe showed that a successful manager is one who focuses a lot of time and effort on steering his employees towards thinking like an entrepreneur. To meet this objective, the manager needs to empower, support and provide incentives for employees to attain self-direction. Capability Development Process In a technology-centred world, conglomerates need to fully utilise their advantage as a large establishment not only in matters of economies of scale but also in the aspects of widening and deepening the knowledge and abilities of its employees. A manager who succeeds will focus on creating a conducive environment that encourages employees to shoulder additional responsibilities. He will also focus on preparing the necessary training and guidance to build their self-confidence. The successful manager will allow employees room for making mistakes without the fear of being penalised while undergoing training and encourage them to learn from their mistakes. Reformation Process A successful manager will identify situations that might pose challenges to the strategies of the organisation and assumptions made. In other words, the manager is capable of cultivating a querying disposition such as why something is done in a certain way and whether there are alternative ways of doing it. 1.2.3 MANAGEMENT SKILLS SELF-CHECK 1.2 When an organisation shortlists employees for the position of a manager, it will usually select individuals with technical, interpersonal and conceptual skills. Therefore, the third approach to understanding the tasks of managers is to analyse the skills required to carry out the tasks. Figure 1.2 shows three types of essential skills required at each level of management. The arrow pointing upwards shows the type of skills that are needed by top-level management. The arrow pointing downwards shows the type of skills that are needed by lower-level management or line managers. Figure 1.2: Skills required of a manager (a) Conceptual Skills Conceptual skills refer to the ability to view the organisation as a whole, and the impact the different sections have on the organisation, as a whole and on each other. It also involves observing how an organisation adapts to or is affected by external environmental factors such as society, economic pressure, customers and competition. An efficient manager should be able to identify, understand and solve the various problems and critical perspectives. The need for conceptual skills becomes increasingly crucial when a manager climbs higher in the management hierarchy. (b) Interpersonal Skills Interpersonal skill is the ability to work well with other people. Managers with good interpersonal skills work more effectively in a group, encouraging other employees to input their ideas and comments as well as being receptive to the needs and views of others. The manager will also, indirectly, become a good listener and speaker. Interpersonal skills are crucial, regardless of the level of management. However, a low-level manager will be more occupied in solving technical problems while a manager at the middle and higher levels will be mainly occupied with dealing directly with others. (c) Technical Skills Technical skills are the ability to apply procedures, techniques and specialised knowledge required in a certain task. For a shoe factory supervisor, the technical skills required will include the steps involved in shoe manufacturing from the beginning until the final product is ready. A housing developers technical skills will include ways to complete the development of a housing estate. Technical skills are crucial for low-level managers as they supervise employees in manufacturing or service sectors. The manager needs to have technical knowledge and the skills to train new employees and assist employees in solving problems. Skills and technical knowledge are required to solve operational problems that cannot be handled by employees. Nevertheless, the higher the position of a manager in a hierarchy, the fewer the technical skills required. SELF-CHECK 1.3 Self check Based on what you have learned, identify the differences between the three levels and tabulate your answers. Exercise Explain each of the management functions that you have learned about. 1.3 HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT Scientific Management Theory (1890-1940) At the turn of the century, the most notable organizations were large and industrialized. Often they included ongoing, routine tasks that manufactured a variety of products. The United States highly prized scientific and technical matters, including careful measurement and specification of activities and results. Management tended to be the same. Frederick Taylor developed the :scientific management theory which espoused this careful specification and measurement of all organizational tasks. Tasks were standardized as much as possible. Workers were rewarded and punished. This approach appeared to work well for organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities. Bureaucratic Management Theory (1930-1950) Max Weber embellished the scientific management theory with his bureaucratic theory. Weber focused on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishing strong lines of authority and control. He suggested organizations develop comprehensive and detailed standard operating procedures for all routinized tasks. Human Relations Movement (1930-today) Eventually, unions and government regulations reacted to the rather dehumanizing effects of these theories. More attention was given to individuals and their unique capabilities in the organization. A major belief included that the organization would prosper if its workers prospered as well. Human Resource departments were added to organizations. The behavioral sciences played a strong role in helping to understand the needs of workers and how the needs of the organization and its workers could be better aligned. Various new theories were spawned, many based on the behavioral sciences (some had name like theory X, Y and Z). General Administrative Theories Administrative theory, Classical administrative theory An early form of organization theory, pioneered mainly by Henri Fayol (1841-1925), which was concerned principally with achieving the most rational organization for co-ordinating the various tasks specified within a complex division of labour (see his Administration industrielle et gà ©nà ©rale, 1916) . The translation of this book into English as General and Industrial Management (1949) implies that Fayol was concerned mainly with business management, although he himself makes it clear that his ideas about management were intended to apply to all formal organizations, including political and religious undertakings. Expressing the French administration as management has also led to the alternative designation of this approach as the classical school of scientific management. More recent exponents include Lyndall Urwick and Peter F. Drucker. Fayol, who is acknowledged to be the earliest advocate of a theoretical analysis of managerial activities, identified the key functions of management as being those of forecasting and planning. The most rational and efficient organizations were, in his view, those which implemented a plan that facilitated unity, continuity, flexibility, precision, command and control. Universal principles of administration were then distilled from these objectives. These include the key elements of the scalar chain (authority and responsibility flowing in an unbroken line from the chief executive to the shop floor); unity of command (each person has only one supervisor with whom he or she communicates); a pyramid of prescribed control (first-line supervisors have a limited number of functions and subordinates, with second-line supervisors controlling a prescribed number of first-line supervisors, and so on up to the chief executive); unity of direction (people engaged in similar activities must pursu e a common objective in line with the overall plan); specialization of tasks (allowing individuals to build up a specific expertise and so be more productive); and, finally, subordination of individual interests to the general interest of the organization. This list is not exhaustive, but illustrates the key proposition of administrative theory, which is that a functionally specific and hierarchical structure offers the most efficient means of securing organizational objectives (see M. B. Brodie , Fayol on Administration, 1967) Classical administrative theory, like its near-contemporary the scientific management approach, rests on the premisses that organizations are unproblematically rational and (effectively) closed systems. In other words, organizations are assumed to have unambiguous and unitary objectives, which the individuals within them pursue routinely, by obeying the rules and fulfilling their role expectations, according to the prescribed blueprint and structure. Moreover, in the attempt to maximize efficiency, it is only variables within that structure that need to be considered and manipulated. The interaction of the organization with its environment, together with the various factors which are external to the organization but nevertheless have consequences for its internal functioning, are systematically ignored. Clearly, both perspectives take a rather deterministic view of social action, since each assumes that individuals will maximize organizational efficiency, independently of their own w elfare, and with no thought for the relationship between the collective goal and their own particular purposes. The Human Relations Movement in organizational analysis, an otherwise diverse group of writers and approaches, is united by its opposition to precisely this assumption. Despite such criticisms, the classical theory of administration has exerted considerable influence on the fields of business studies and public administration, and it still provides the basic concepts which many managers use in clarifying their objectives. Question why they need evolution in the first place? What change the theory, From the start of the 19th century until the 20th century, managers and scholars formed a theoretical framework to explain what they believe to be good practices of management. Their efforts led to five different classes of perspectives on management classical, behavioural, quantitative, systems and contemporary. Each perspective is based on different assumptions towards the objectives of the organisation and human behaviour. Figure 1.3 will help you to understand the chronological sequence of the perspectives. You might be wondering why it is important and necessary to study the historical development or the evolution of management thought. Studying history enables us to learn from mistakes made in the past so as to avoid making them in the future. History also enables us to study past successes that can be emulated accordingly in the future. Most importantly, we must understand the reasons behind such occurrences in order to improve in the future. 1.4.1 Classical Perspective This perspective existed in the 19th century and early 20th century. It focused on the rational and scientific approaches to the study of management and on finding ways to mould an organisation to become more efficient. There are three sub-classes in this perspective, the scientific management, bureaucracy management and administrative management. (a) Scientific Management This approach existed at a time when productivity was deemed critical by businessmen. Businesses were growing rapidly but businessmen were facing a critical shortage of workers. Hence, management was continuously finding ways to improve the performance of its employees. The focus on improving employees efficiency is known as the scientific management approach. A number of researchers contributed towards the findings of scientific management, among them Frederick Winslow Taylor, Frank and Lilian Gilbreth and Henry Gantt. Frederick Taylor (1856-1915), a mechanical engineer, was of the opinion that problems arose mainly due to bad management practices and, to a lesser degree, problems with employees. He stressed that management itself needed to transform and that the transformation method could only be established through scientific research. He suggested that decisions based on rules of thumb be substituted with established procedures, after analysing each situation. Taylors theory, which stated that the productivity of the labour force could be improved through scientifically-based management practices, earned him the title Father of Scientific Management. To improve the work performance of employees, Taylor conducted a research entitled Time and Motions Study. From the research findings, Taylor identified five principles of management that could boost production efficiency. The five principles were: (i) Using the scientific approach to determine best practices and not relying on rules of thumb; (ii) Selecting suitable employees to perform a particular task. Suitability covers mental and physical aspects; (iii) Training and developing an employee so that he is able to perform a given task according to established procedures; (iv) Giving monetary incentives to ensure that employees perform a task accordingly; and (v) Reassigning all responsibilities pertaining to planning and organising to the manager. Taylor was not alone in this research. Henry Gantt (1861-1919), a friend of Taylor, focused on the control system in the scheduling of production. The Gantt Chart is still used today in planning the schedule of a project and has also been adapted in computerised-scheduling applications. The husband and wife team of Frank (1868-1924) and Lillian Gilbreth (1878-1972), also strived to further expand the scientific management approach. Lillian was a pioneer in the field of industrial psychology and contributed greatly to human resource management. She believed that if scientific management was widely utilised, the abilities of each employee would grow considerably. (b) Bureaucratic Management Bureaucratic management is an approach to management that is based on guidelines, hierarchy, clear division of labour as well as rules and procedures. Max Weber (1864-1920), a German social theorist, introduced many bureaucratic concepts. Among the components of bureaucracy are: (i) Authority and clearly defined responsibilities; (ii) Positions in an organisation that are structured according to hierarchy; (iii) Promotions based on qualifications; (iv) Records of all administrative actions and decisions to ensure continuity of organisational rules; (v) Separation of ownership and management; and (vi) Guidelines implemented to all employees without bias. The bureaucratic approach strives to increase efficiency and ensure continuity of overall operations of the organisation. This approach differs from scientific management, which only focuses on the employee as an individual. Nevertheless, this principle, used to improve efficiency, also may cause inefficiency. Rigid guidelines create red tape and slow down the decision-making process, resulting in the inability to change swiftly to adapt to the needs of the environment and, at times, create conflicts in performing a task professionally. (c) Administrative Management The administrative management principle focuses on the organisation as a whole. Among the contributors to this approach are Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett and Chester I. Barnard. Henri Fayol (1841-1925), a Frenchman, is considered the pioneer of administrative theory as he introduced the organisational principles and administrative functions. His most relevant contribution was presenting the definition and roles of an administrator. Fayol defined administration and management as planning, organising, directing, coordinating and controlling. He identified 14 principles of management: Division of labour: This is a concept on specialisation of work, based on the assumptions that: No one can do all the work; Each job requires different skills; and Repetition of work will increase efficiency. Authority: The right to give directions and power to be complied with. Here, authority at the office has to be differentiated from personal authority. Discipline: Based on respect and conformity. Unity of command: An employee should receive instructions from one superior only. Unity of direction: One superior and one direction for a particular activity with the same objective. Subordination of individual interests to the general interests: Personal interest should not exceed or precede over common interest. Remuneration: Salary payment based on various factors. Centralisation: The centralisation of work depends on th

Compare and contrast Malcolm X, David Walker

I would like to thank my entire group members and Professor Donaldson whose comments and suggestions had been very helpful to improve the quality of this final paper. I have tried for the best of my ability to incorporate in this final version, all their great ideas about the format and the content of the documents. Professor Donaldson suggested â€Å"I am going to suggest that you do a little reorganizing. First of all, you should get rid of all of the headings. Then you should move the biography blurbs to the beginning of each discussion of each respective author. † This idea abstracts Joseph’s and Kandice’s. Following these directions, I have removed all the headings, and the biography blurbs. I also have quoted from the required textbook, and mentioned related page numbers in parentheses. Kandice wanted â€Å"I would organize the paper in a different way and also try and tie the writers and speakers background more into their writings†. Copy and Past were the best tools to satisfy that other nice suggestion. Once again thank you; Malcolm X’s leadership style and his viewpoint about how the Civil Right Movement should be implemented was very similar to David Walker’s, but greatly conflicted with Booker T Washington whose ideas appealed to a completely different audience. The Civil Right Movement is the Africans- Americans movement that dominated the debates in the United Stated political sphere during the period of (1955-1968). The movement was about the fight against inequality, Americans struggles for social justice, and the racial discriminations. In order to reach their objectives, Africans Americans leaders had displayed many different ideas about how to conduct the movement. Some believed that the movement should be implemented without violence; some thought that the economic freedom was the first to be reached, while others believed that the freedom could not be achieved without confrontation. If the ideas of those bright leaders were saluted by the majority of the Americans people today, it is however noticeable that some of them are still been seen as controversial figures. David Walker was born in Wilmington, North Carolina 1796. His father was a slave man and his mother a free black, so was David Walker because of the existing laws that defined the status of the child based on the mother's. As many of his fellow blacks, a freeman status could not prevent anyone from being an unfortunate witness of the human cruelties. In 1820 he was part of the associate back activists to denounce slavery and discrimination; he also took part of the Freedom's Journal in New York City, and many others forms of social justice fight. In 1830 David was found dead in his home. David Walker had accomplished many works for the Civil Right movement in America to make the United States a better country for all Americans. Among those works, one of the written that had brought so much attention to the public is walker's Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World. In this document, Walker made the true to be heard as it was based on his observation in the United States and around the world. He spoke not only to his brethren, but the white Christian Americans. He reminded the Christians about their values, the history of the Egyptians, and Romans Slaveries. He also reminded them about the history of those slaveries and how they had been destroyed because of their God anger based on the inhuman treatment they used to impose to the slaves whom supposed to be treated with the same human dignity they would want for their families. â€Å"God made man to serve Him alone, and that man should have no other Lord or Lords but Himself— that God Almighty is the sole proprietor or master for the Whole human family, and will not on any consideration admit a colleague†. (P. 230) His appeal was also for the black asking their sense of capability of rising up and demands what is their civil right: † Oh! y coloured brethren, all over the world, when shall we arise from this death-like apathy? –And be men!! † â€Å"Are we MEN!! -I ask you, O my brethren! are we MEN? Did our Creator make us to be slaves to dust and ashes like ourselves? Are they not dying worms as well as we? Have they not to make their appearance before the tribunal of Heaven, to answer for the deeds done in the body, as well as we? Have we any other Master but Jesus Christ alone? Is he not their Master as well as ours? -What right then, have we to obey and call any other Master, but Himself? How we could be so submissive to a gang of men, whom we cannot tell whether they are as good as ourselves or not, I never could conceive. However, this is shut up with the Lord, and we cannot precisely tell-but I declare, we judge men by their works† (P. 237). Clearly, Walker's strategy encourages the revolt and the civil disorder. Unlike David Walker, Booker Taliaferro Washington was born slave in 1856, from a slave mother and a white father. As many young slaves, he had been exposed very soon to the routines; his early duty was to carry the books of James Burroughs's daughters at Franklin County School. After the Emancipation Proclamation was read in April 1865, his family went to his stepfather's house in Malden, West Virginia. Booker started working at a salt mine and going to school. Few years later, booker got a houseboy position with a wealthy towns-woman, a person who promoted his learning. When he was 16, he used to travel back to Virginia to the new school for black students. He studied at Hampton Institute while working. His admission to Hampton changed his life; he was instructor. In 1881 he founded Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. Booker was nationally recognized as the back educator. He was more focused on pushing for black's economic well being and fighting against racisms. He died in 1915. Monday, 21-Aug-2006 In his famous and historical speech of compromise before a majority white audience in Atlanta on September 18th, 1895, Booker T Washington had laid out a strategy for the blacks' economic freedom; Booker urged his fellow blacks Americans to be more focused in their own economic development â€Å"Cast down your bucket where you are—Cast it down in making friends in every manly way of the people of all races by whom we are surrounded. Cast it down in agriculture, mechanics, in commerce, in domestic service, and in the professions†. (P. 595) He also spoke about the role the whites Americans would have to play to help them to achieve that goal. â€Å"Cast down your bucket among the eight millions of Negroes whose habits you know whose fidelity and love you have tested in days when to have proved treacherous meant the ruin of your firesides. Cast down your bucket among these people who have, without strikes and labour wars, tilled your fields, cleared your forests, builded your railroads and cities†(P. 95) The compromise had reminded the whites Americans to their role and responsibility tower the blacks Americans based on the choice they would have to make. A positive choice would be the whites’ willingness to promote black education and make them the most intellect and useful citizens; while the wrong choice would simply keep them doing the business as usual, denying the basic right of education to the blacks Americans, keeping them ignorant at the same exposed them as, the threats for the whites. Booker's strategy in this speech appealed to the blacks' economics development in a peaceful environment with the whites Americans. Unlike the two first leaders, Malcolm Little was born free in Omaha, Nebraska on May 19th, 1925. His parents were both blacks Americans; his mother was a homemaker and his father was an outspoken Baptist minister also a strong supporter of Black Nationalism. In 1929 their home was burned, and his father's body was found mutilated after two years. Years later, his mother Louise had the mental issues because of the situation the family went through. Malcolm is graduated from junior high as the top of the class. He did not continue his studies because he was influenced by the negative advise that suggested that his goal of becoming a lawyer was not reachable for a nagger. He worked numerous jobs in Boston before traveling to New York; he was associated to many criminal activities. In 1946 Malcolm was arrested in Boston with burglary charges and sentenced for seven years in prison. Malcolm used his prison term for self studies and taking part in the organized debates. He was influenced by Elijah Muhammad a leader of the Nation of Islam; before he left prison, Malcolm was a strong follower of the Nation of Islam. He changed his last name to â€Å"X† as a way to repeal to the slave name while expressing the backs' identity issues. Unlike many of the Civil Right Leaders, Malcolm X is a complex transformational figure in American history. His accomplishments and his different life stories continue to generate heats debates among his supporters and opponents. The transformation from a criminal Malcolm Little, the influential Black Muslim leaders Malcolm X, and his controversial position on the public issues. In April 1964, Malcolm X delivered a speech that defined his position about the direction of the Civil Right Movement. The speech is famously called The Ballot or the Bullet. In that speech, like David Booker, Malcolm spoke about the Negroes revolt; similarly both men were not afraid to die for the cause, and both believed in action. Both of them were ready to take any action against oppression. The Southerners were ready to offer $1,000, against David Walker's heart after his Appeal to Coloured Citizens of the Work. He was found died in his home; it is not clear what killed him. Malcolm X ended up by getting killed. Booker T Washington like Malcolm X was for the blacks' economics development even though the methods were different. Booker would like it peacefully and inclusively in compromise with the white people. Malcolm X would like it exclusively in black communities even if they had to confront the white people whom he accused of the causes of the blacks' struggles. Malcolm X believe â€Å" the Negroes who through their lives have been kicked about, treated like children—Negroes who never have met one white man who didn’t either take something from tem or do something to them. (P. 1871). David Walker, Booker T Washington, and Malcolm X were Africans Americans leaders whom had influenced Americans history through their work in the Civil Right movement. Their belief, theories, and actions in the process of the Civil Right Movement, Malcolm X and David Walker had the same philosophical views that made their voices more appealing to the same group of audience in majorly blacks. Booker T Washington who had philosophical difference with his fellows X and Walker, believed in a peaceful resolution of the matter with a possible cohabitation of all Americans. As his fellow leaders David Walker and Booker T Washington, Malcolm X had a tremendous contribution to the American history, but because of his outspoken position to many issues of public interest, his enemies had portrayed him as a controversial figure, and did not want him to be recognized as a great American leader. He was someone who used to speak fearlessly from the heart about any kinds of issues. The way he used to express his viewpoints was the same to his enemies as well as his to friends and his leaders whom introduced him to Muslim religion. As far as the controversy is concerned, it depends of who you are and on which side of the issues you on. The black people would see David and Malcolm as the voices of those without voices; their outspoken actions against the system were the direct translation of many frustrations among the black communities. Obviously, a white person would see them as dividers and would try hard to expose them as bad guys. Booker T Washington would be seen as a centrist. David Walker and Malcolm X had the same stand point about how to conduct the Civil Right Movement. They both promoted the civil disorders, revolt, unity, and economic improvement between blacks in exclusion with the white Americans. Booker T Washington would prefer the black economic empowerment in compromise and friendship with the whites Americans. He wanted the black people to give up of some claim of the civil right, and the white people to help black to realize their economic development. All of the three leaders, David Walker, Booker T Washington and Malcolm X agreed about black people's education, their economic development, and unity among them. David Walker and Malcolm X believed that the confrontation, revolt and exclusion were the way to go without any compromise. They did not trust the whites Americans' willingness to compromise. They believed that the freedom could not be negotiated, but could be earned by fighting for it. Booker T Washington did not agree with them. He believed that the revolt and exclusion were not the best answers, but the compromise and inclusion. He believed that there was a possibility for both communities to dependently work together in the mutual respect.

Three Components to the Justice System

of the justice system The Criminal Justice System James E. Boyd Strayer University Douglas Brinkley The Justice System Criminal Justice is a phrase that refers to the collection of the three criminal justice systems. The federal, state, and local public agencies deal with the crime problem. These agencies process suspects, defendants, and convicted offenders and are interdependent insofar as the decisions of one agency affect other agencies. The three components of criminal justice are Law Enforcement, Courts, and Corrections.While all independent, they all must work together towards a common goal. The goal is to establish order and peace for all citizens of this great nation. Police The first component of the criminal justice system, perhaps the most dangerous, is law enforcement. Police departments are public agencies whose purposes are to maintain order, enforce the criminal law, and provide services. This includes the local police as well as the federal and state departments.They head the criminal justice system because they are the ones that find and capture individuals who break the laws set forth by the state or federal government. Law enforcement personnel are also responsible for ensuring the cases are strong enough to stand up in court. They cooperate with prosecutors in criminal investigations, gathering evidence necessary to obtain convictions in the courts. Court The second component of the criminal justice system is the court.Courts are tribunals where persons accused of violating criminal law come to have their criminal responsibility determined by juries or judges. The court system includes prosecution, defense lawyers, judges, and juries. Judges hear the cases and preside over the participants to make sure that all laws are followed while the cases are being tried. Some cases are tried in front of a judge only, while others have a jury of 12 citizens who determine the guilt or innocence of a defendant based on facts brought forth during a trial .A jury may also make a recommendation of what a sentence should be. A judge ultimately decides a sentence unless there are pre-determined sentencing guidelines that need to be followed. Sentencing guidelines are more prevalent in the federal justice system. Corrections The third and final component of the criminal justice system is corrections. The role of this component is to uphold and administer sentences handed down by judges. Corrections include probation, parole, jail, prison, and a variety of new community-based sanctions, such as electronic monitoring and house arrest.The corrections system, which is tightly intertwined with the previous two components, is very important and quite large. The corrections component includes jails, prisons, correctional officers, probation officers and parole officers. The purposes of correctional agencies are to punish, to rehabilitate, and to ensure public safety. References. Schmalleger, Frank (2010) Criminal Justice Today (11th Edition) : An Introductory Text For The Twenty- First Century, Chapter 1, Pgs. 16 & 17. Judiciary Judiciary Police Police Corrections Corrections

27 Unforgettable Katharine Hepburn Quotes

Katharine Hepburn, actress, was best known for roles in which she played strong, sophisticated women. Selected Katharine Hepburn Quotations I never realized until lately that women were supposed to be the inferior sex.Life is to be lived. If you have to support yourself, you had bloody well better find some way that is going to be interesting. And you dont do that by sitting around wondering about yourself.If you give an audience a chance they will do half your acting for you.Acting is the most minor of gifts and not a very high-class way to earn a living.. After all, Shirley Temple could do it at the age of four.When I started out, I didnt have any desire to be an actress or to learn how to act. I just wanted to be famous.Everyone thought I was bold and fearless and even arrogant, but inside I was always quaking.If you always do what interests you, at least one person is pleased.If you obey all the rules, you miss all the fun.Without discipline, theres no life at all.Enemies are so stimulating.Loved people are loving people.Love has nothing to do with what you are expecting to get — only what you are expecting to give — which is everything. What you will receive in return varies. But it really has no connection with what you give. You give because you love and cannot help giving.Sometimes I wonder if men and women really suit each other. Perhaps they should live next door and just visit now and then.Marriage is a series of desperate arguments people feel passionately about.If you want to sacrifice the admiration of many men for the criticism of one, go ahead, get married.Plain women know more about men than beautiful women do.If you’re given a choice between money and sex appeal, take the money. As you get older, the money will become your sex appeal.I have many regrets, and Im sure everyone does. The stupid things you do, you regret if you have any sense, and if you dont regret them, maybe youre stupid.Itd be a terrific innovation if you could get your mind to stretch a little further than the next wisecrack.Life can be wildly tragic at times, and Ive had my share. But whatev er happens to you, you have to keep a slightly comic attitude. In the final analysis, you have got to not forget to laugh.If you survive long enough, youre revered - rather like an old building.There are no laurels in life ... just new challenges.Lifes whats important. Walking, houses, family. Birth and pain and joy. Actings just waiting for a custard pie. Thats all.It’s life isn’t it? You plow ahead and make a hit. And you plow on and someone passes you. Then someone passes them. Time levels.Life is hard. After all, it kills you.I dont think that work ever really destroyed anybody. I think that lack of work destroys them a hell of a lot more.I never lose sight of the fact that just being is fun.